61 Worked Examples: Anatomy, Regulations & Structures

The aircraft category is “Airplane,” and its class is “Single Engine Land (SEL).”

1. Wings. H &amp O. The wings provide the primary lift force on the airplane to sustain its flight.
2. Vertical stabilizer. B. The vertical stabilizer gives the aircraft directional (yaw) stability.
3. Fuselage. A. The fuselage is the main body of the aircraft and houses the cockpit, engine, fuel, and various flight systems.
4. Flaps. F & Q. The flaps allow the wings to sustain lift at low airspeeds and are used during takeoff and landing.
5. Undercarriage. I & K. The undercarriage is the wheels used to maneuver the aircraft on the ground.
6. Propeller. L. The propeller provides the propulsive force to move the airplane forward; it is connected to the engine.
7. Rudder. C. The rudder is used for directional (yaw) control.
8. Ailerons. G & P. The ailerons are differential flaps used for roll control.
9. Elevator. D. The elevator is used for pitch control.
10. Horizontal stabilizer. E. The horizontal stabilizer gives the aircraft stability in the pitch direction.
11. Wing strut. N. The purpose of the wing struts (one for each wing) is to carry tensile loads to resist wing bending from the lift forces.
12. Engine. M. The engine provides the power to spin the propeller and create thrust to propel the aircraft forward.
13. Cockpit. J. The cockpit is where the pilot(s) sit and where they operate the aircraft. The cockpit will have the flight controls, instruments, radios, and navigation equipment.

1. Main spar. A. The main spar will carry the primary bending loads on the wing. The main spar is usually a form of I-beam, which is strong, stiff, and light.
2. Main spar attachments. E. The main spar is attached to the fuselage using lugs and bolts. The purpose of the spar attachments is to carry the bending loads through the fuselage from one wing to the other.
3. Root rib. D. The root rib is the strongest rib because it carries most of the torsion loads from the wing and transfers them to the fuselage structure.
4. Tip rib. I. The tip rib is the last and outermost rib in the wing structure, which, because of the low loads there, can usually be made of the thinnest sheet material.
5. Rear spar. F. The rear spar carries some bending loads and attaches to the fuselage to carry torsion loads. The rear spar is also used to attach the flaps and the ailerons.
6. Ribs. B. The ribs define the wing’s cross-sectional (airfoil) shape and carry torsional loads. The ribs usually have lightening holes in their webs to reduce weight.
7. Stringers. C. The stringers increase the wing bending stiffness to help distribute the loads and prevent skin buckling.
8. Flap. G. The flaps are high-lift devices that allow the aircraft to fly at lower airspeeds for takeoff and landing.
9. Flap rib. H. The flap rib helps define the flap’s shape and carries torsional loads.

What is the International Civil Aviation Organization (ICAO)? What role does the ICAO play in civil aviation?

• The International Civil Aviation Organization, or ICAO, is an agency of the United Nations founded in 1947. It is essential in civil aviation “To ensure international aviation is conducted in a unified, safe, and orderly manner.” The ICAO sets standards and policies regarding international air transport based on “equality of opportunity, and so it is operated soundly and economically for the benefit of all.”
• The ICAO works with the member states and various aviation organizations at all levels to develop International Standards and Recommended Practices (SARPs), which form the basis for all civil aviation regulations worldwide, such as FAA FARs in the US and the EASA standards in Europe. The ICAO does not deal with military aviation, although military aircraft design standards are usually developed by the ICAO SARPs.

• In 2013, the ICAO set a new noise standard, known as Chapter 14 or Stage 5, by the FAA. The latest noise standard rules must be met by larger civil aircraft designed and certified for airworthiness after 2017 or smaller aircraft after 2020. The purpose of the new standard is to reduce the noise level for people frequently exposed to aircraft noise, including passengers, flight crews, and the people on the ground, particularly those who live in residential communities surrounding airports.
• According to the ICAO, aircraft noise is considered the most significant cause of adverse community reactions related to airport operation and expansion. This issue persists even though the Stage 4 standard, adopted in 2006, has already reduced the Effective Perceived Noise Level (EPNdB) from the previous noise standards. The new Stage 5 standard requires a cumulative reduction of 7 EPNdB relative to the Stage 4 standard.
• The first aircraft to be certified under the new noise standard was the De Havilland Canada Dash 8-400 turboprop aircraft, which underwent recertification tests to meet the latest noise standards of Chapter 14. According to EASA, about one-third of newer aircraft currently flying have already met the Stage 5 noise standard requirements. However, all new aircraft produced after 2020 will be held to these higher noise standards.

The FAA plays a crucial role in commercial space transportation. Do some research on the Internet, and discuss the FAA’s role and what it does regarding regulations that apply to commercial space flight activities.

• You can read about the FAA’s role in commercial space activities here: https://www.faa.gov/space/. The Office of Commercial Space Transportation (FAA/AST) regulates and oversees commercial space launches in the United States.
• The FAA/AST’s mission is to ensure the safety of the public, property, and the national security and foreign policy interests of the United States during commercial launches or re-entry activities. The FAA/AST’s regulatory authority over commercial space transportation is limited to ensuring compliance with the United States’ international obligations, health and safety, property safety, and protecting the public national security and foreign policy interests of the United States.
• The FAA/AST also aims to encourage, facilitate, and promote commercial space launches by the private sector, recommend appropriate changes in federal statutes, treaties, regulations, policies, plans, and procedures, and facilitate the strengthening and expansion of the United States space transportation infrastructure.

23.2100 Weight and center of gravity.
23.2105 Performance data.
23.2110 Stall speed.
23.2115 Takeoff performance.
23.2120 Climb requirements.
23.2125 Climb information.
23.2130 Landing.

• Using “Takeoff performance” as a further example, we find a discussion on the following: Stall speed safety margins, Minimum control speeds, and climb gradients. Takeoff performance for single-engine and certain low-speed multi-engine airplanes includes determining the ground roll and initial climb distance to 50 feet (15 meters) above the takeoff surface. For certain multi-engine airplanes, takeoff performance consists of a determination of the following distances after a sudden critical loss of thrust, e.g., an aborted takeoff at critical speed, ground roll, and initial climb to 35 feet (11 meters) above the takeoff surface, and takeoff flight path.
• PART 25 considers AIRWORTHINESS STANDARDS: TRANSPORT CATEGORY AIRPLANES. Like Part 23, the contents include standards for flight performance, flight characteristics, controllability, structural design, powerplants, operating limitations, etc. For example, under “Operating Limitations,” we have (in part) the following:

25.1503 Airspeed limitations: general.
25.1505 Maximum operating limit speed.
25.1507 Maneuvering speed.
25.1511 Flap extended speed.
25.1513 Minimum control speed.
25.1515 Landing gear speeds.

• Using “Landing gear speeds” as a further example, we find a discussion of the established landing gear operating speed or speeds, VLO, which they say may not exceed the speed at which it is safe both to extend and to retract the landing gear, as determined under Part 25.729 or by flight characteristics. They go on further to say that for the aircraft, if the extension speed is not the same as the retraction speed (meaning that the maximum safe retraction of the landing gear may not occur at the same airspeed as for the extension of the gear), the two speeds must be designated as VLO_EXT and VLO_RET, respectively. Finally, they conclude by saying that the established landing gear extended speed VLE may be, at most, the speed at which it is safe to fly with the landing gear secured in the fully extended position.

The introduction of diverse types of UAVs into the aviation spectrum continues to cause many concerns for regulators at the FAA. Could you discuss some of the reasons? What additional concerns might be associated with drone operations at the ERAU Daytona Beach campus?

• The Federal Aviation Administration (FAA) has established the Federal Aviation Regulations (FARs) to regulate the use of drones, also known as Unmanned Aircraft Systems (UAS), in the National Airspace System (NAS). Part 107 of the FARs pertains specifically to small UAS operations, which includes commercial and non-recreational use of drones weighing less than 55 lb (24.9 kg). The FAA introduced these regulations recently because of the proliferation of various commercially available drones, some of which were being flown high and fast enough to pose a danger to other aviation operations or the general public.
• While the Part 107 rules are flexible to accommodate future technological innovations, they also impose restrictions on the flight operations of all types of drones for safety considerations. FAR Part 107 sets down a series of “common sense” rules requiring the drone operator to avoid all kinds of crewed aircraft and never operate such a drone carelessly or recklessly.
• The specific reasons for the FAA’s concerns regarding the continued introduction of diverse types of drones into the aviation spectrum include the following:

1. 1. Safety: The FAA’s primary concern is the safety of people and property on the ground and other aircraft in the air. Drones can collide with other aircraft or cause injury or damage.
   2. Privacy: Using drones has raised privacy concerns, as they can easily fly over private property and capture images and videos. The FAA must balance the privacy rights of individuals with the benefits of drone technology.
   3. Security: Drones can be used for malicious purposes, such as smuggling, spying, and conducting attacks. The FAA must consider the security implications of drone operations and take measures to prevent unauthorized use.
   4. Integration: Integrating drones into the NAS is a complex process, and the FAA must ensure that they do not interfere with other aircraft operations or cause air traffic control problems.

• The concern about operating drones near the ERAU campus would be similar to the concerns the FAA has on a larger scale. The top priority would be the safety and security of staff, students, and faculty, as well as avoiding potential interference with aircraft operations at the airport.

What might be some of the specific airworthiness concerns that the FAA might be associated with “aging aircraft,” i.e., those flying aircraft 20 to 30 or more years old? Also, look at Part 26 of the FARs – what do these FARs say about older aircraft and their required maintenance?

• The FAA is concerned with the airworthiness of aging aircraft, as these aircraft may experience deterioration of materials, systems, and components over time. To ensure their continued safe operation, the maintenance and inspection requirements for older aircraft may become more frequent and complex.
• Part 26 of the Federal Aviation Regulations (FARs) establishes requirements for the continuing airworthiness of aircraft and related products, parts, and appliances. It covers the maintenance, preventive maintenance, rebuilding, and alteration of aircraft, engines, propellers, and appliances. These FARs specify the inspection and maintenance requirements for aging aircraft, including requirements for repetitive inspections and structural assessments. The requirements for older aircraft may be more stringent than newer aircraft and may include more frequent inspections and particular maintenance tasks.
• Part 26 also outlines the FAA’s policies and procedures for certifying aging aircraft and granting an extension to comply with airworthiness directives. These FARs aim to ensure the safe operation of older aircraft and reduce the risk of in-flight structural failures.

The forces and moments must all balance out on an aircraft in straight and level, unaccelerated flight at a constant airspeed, i.e., the sum of the forces must be zero, and also, the sum of the moments about the center of gravity (CG) must be zero. For vertical equilibrium, the upward lift on the wing plus the lift on the tail (also positive upward by definition) must equal the weight of the aircraft , i.e.,

or

So, in this case, the actual lift force on the tail must be downward. We can refer our moment calculations to the CG. The lift acts at a distance behind the center of gravity (CG). The nose-down pitching moment about the CG in trim must be zero, i.e.,

Rearranging to solve for gives

1. This image shows a monocoque or shell structure. A monocoque structure is a design in which the outer skin or shell provides most of the structural strength and stiffness without needing internal framing or bracing. In a monocoque structure, loads are distributed through the skin, which is usually made of a strong and thicker material to carry the required loads. This approach can result in a lighter and more streamlined structure because it eliminates the need for internal structures or fasteners such as rivets.
2. Monocoque structures are designed to be lightweight and strong but can be vulnerable to buckling. Buckling can occur when compressive forces cause the skin to deform (inward or outward), causing the shell structure to wrinkle and lose its rigidity and strength.
3. Buckling usually happens when a monocoque structure is subjected to excessive compressive, torsion, or bending loads. The primary consideration is typically any part of the structure under compressive loads.
4. Various techniques can be used to prevent buckling in a monocoque structure, such as adding stiffeners, ribs, or stringers to the internal structure. Increasing the thickness of the skin or changing its material are other options.
5. A monocoque structure is commonly used in aircraft and spacecraft where weight is critical. Monocoque structures on an aircraft can be found in fuselages and lightly loaded parts such as control surfaces and trim tabs. The crew module or capsule on a spacecraft is usually a monocoque structure and may be made of sandwich construction. The payload fairing on a rocket is generally designed as a monocoque structure, with the skin and internal structure providing the required strength and stiffness.

Strain is defined as

and rearranging gives

Inserting the known values for this problem gives

Therefore, the strained length of the member will be