Introduction

While students are naturally excited to embark on a program of study toward becoming an aerospace engineer, professional and ethical responsibilities accompany being part of the profession. There is a myriad of regulations and policies that apply to the design and operation of flight vehicles. However, there are also established ethical practices and codes of conduct in regard to how engineers perform their duties.

Besides “gaining technical qualifications and maintaining their technical competency,” engineers must always abide by the ethical principles that govern their profession. In this regard, engineers must carry out all of their technical duties with honesty and integrity, be considerate and respectful of professional colleagues, both within and outside of their organization, be concerned for the safety and welfare of the public, and be aware of any legal responsibilities and liabilities. Today, engineers must also understand much more about the potential impact of their decisions on the environment. Furthermore, they must also comply with a myriad of local, state, and national laws and/or regulations, which may also depend on the locality, state, or country in which they practice engineering.

Other issues engineers must be concerned about regarding their work activities and products include copyright and what is or is not allowed under copyright law, both U.S. and international. Today, they must also be aware of the laws that involve the use of software and all sorts of digital media to fully comply with the Digital Millennium Copyright Act (DMCA).

Differences Between Morals and Ethics

The words morals and ethics are often used interchangeably, but they have very distinct meanings and must be carefully distinguished. On the one hand, morals refer to a set of principles or values that guide individuals or society in determining what is right or wrong. The word “morals” is derived from the Latin word “moralitas,” which means “manner, character, or proper behavior.” It is the conduct or rules that a person or community may adhere to, believing these things to be obligatory.  On the other hand, ethics refers to the systematic study of moral principles and how they should be applied in different contexts. The word “ethics” is derived from the Greek word “ethikos,” which means “pertaining to character.” Ethics explores questions about what actions are morally right or wrong, what principles should guide human behavior, and how we can make ethical judgments.

In essence, morals are the principles or values that individuals or communities hold and follow, while ethics is the study and reflection on those principles and how they should be applied. Morals are more subjective and personal, varying from person to person or culture to culture, while ethics aims to provide a more objective and reasoned approach to understanding morality. Morals are often influenced by personal beliefs, cultural norms, religion, or upbringing, whereas ethics seeks to evaluate and analyze moral dilemmas and provide frameworks or theories to guide decision-making.

Ethics provide a framework for deciding what is right or wrong within a particular context. Therefore, ethics are more objective and based on reasoning, which is to seek to establish a common and firm set of standards of acceptable conduct within a group or organization, i.e.,

Therefore, to have an ethical perspective, there must be some explanation. Remember that ethics is fundamentally a form of moral philosophy, and philosophy is all about reasoning. Of relevance to engineers is the subject of natural philosophy or the philosophy of nature (from the Latin philosophia naturalis), which is the study of physics and the nature of the physical universe.

Aerospace Code of Ethics

Like all professional fields, newcomers must be aware of a code of aerospace engineering ethics. The aerospace profession has established such codes of ethics over many decades and “establish the aerospace engineer’s standing concerning the public at large, their clients and employers, and the profession as a whole.”

The general principles laid down by the codes of ethics are broadly similar across the world’s engineering societies and those established by other professional authorities. Furthermore, in many countries, such codes have also been incorporated into regulatory laws and are legally enforceable, i.e., ethical violations carry legal consequences that may result in civil and/or criminal penalties. Therefore, all engineers must be aware of their respective codes of practice, regardless of where they are in the world, and properly adhere to them in all their engineering tasks and duties.

The following is a top-level list of Guidelines to Practice in the U.S. under the American Institute of Aeronautics (AIAA) Code of Ethics. The complete statement is available on the AIAA’s website at: https://www.aiaa.org/CodeOfEthics/.

Facing Ethical Issues

Engineers will likely face some form of ethical issues during their careers. Some of these issues may be technical, but others may be non-technical and have broader considerations involving administrative and/or legal implications. One ethical dilemma an engineer can face is their duty to report a possible risk to others by a client or an employer who “fails to follow proper engineering practices, advice, or judgment.” It should be remembered that an engineer has a higher duty to society as a whole, not to any other individual, employer, or organization.

Remember also that an engineer may be disciplined and/or an employer sanctioned if the loss of life or well-being can be traced to a failure to follow sound engineering practices or otherwise engaging in any practice connected to ethical misconduct. In addition, if the ethical principles are part of regulatory law, which is the case in many professions, not just engineering, civil or criminal penalties may be imposed for severe misconduct cases.

Examples of Ethical Concerns

Examples of ethical concerns for an engineer may include the following:

• Failure to separate professional and personal relationships with clients, consultants, contractors, or others.
• Possible forms of conflict of interest, i.e., a clash between self-serving interests and professional duties or responsibilities.
• Acts of bribery and/or the receipt of kickbacks.
• Improper treatment of confidential or proprietary information.
• Failure to ensure proper legal compliance by clients, contractors, and others.
• Conspiracy to defraud by impairing, obstructing, defeating, or interfering with lawful requirements.
• Conflicting outside employment, including activities such as “moonlighting.”
• Issues that may involve “quid-pro-quo,” i.e., gaining something for something.
• Intimidation by employers, co-workers, or by other individuals, such as in an attempt to discredit or punish those who dissent with their actions, opinions, or judgment.

Adherence to acceptable ethical practices and fulfilling all ethical responsibilities will avoid most initial concerns.

Resolution of Ethical Concerns

In some cases, an engineer may seek advice from a colleague or manager to help resolve an ethical dilemma. Usually, a resolution of the matter is forthcoming after discussion, but there may be exceptions. For example, sometimes, there may not be a clear resolution to an ethical issue, but there may still be some approaches or solutions, some of which may be better than others.

Responsibilities to employers and confidentiality considerations that otherwise would have prevented an engineer from acting ethically and in the public interest, are considered extremely seriously by professional engineering societies. They also may have legal implications through the courts and certification authorities like the FAA or EASA. Such issues can have severe repercussions for employers and employees alike, and in the case of a breach of the FARs (Federal Aviation Regulations), for example, then legal consequences are always likely.

Whistleblowing is usually a last resort, but it is not an unusual action based on legal case history for an employee to take action against an organization that exhibits poor judgment, questionable conduct, unsafe processes, or even some form of illegal activity. In the U.S., under federal and state laws, employees who have reported illegal conduct, unlawful intimidation, safety hazards, and other similar problems are protected under the law against any retaliation. Nevertheless, whistleblowing should never be considered the first or even an early action by an employee.

Consequences of Ethical Misconduct

The engineering societies all have ethics review boards. For serious ethics violations, these boards may issue sanctions that include suspension or expulsion from the society, in some cases with the simultaneous revocation of all professional qualifications or licenses. In cases of loss of life or well-being, the courts have usually sided with those who have spoken up against an employer or other organization for not following acceptable or otherwise sound engineering practices. Therefore, it is clear that full compliance with ethical and other professional standards is always the best policy.

The recently reported ethical misconduct scandals at Volkswagen over a vehicle emissions control device and at Boeing Commercial Aircraft over the circumstances that led to two fatal crashes of the 737-MAX with the loss of 346 lives, are now case studies of egregious ethical misconduct. The consequences of these cases have resulted in considerable harm to the two organizations, their employees, the professional engineering field as a whole, and the public at large. In both cases, an emphasis on corporate profits over sound engineering and safety practices was at the root of the ethical misconduct.

Of course, bad outcomes will always transpire in any organizational culture that emphasizes profits over public safety, especially if they also go so far as to discredit, threaten, or otherwise punish those employees who dissent with their actions. However, an engineer’s ethical responsibilities certainly do not preclude the consideration of important factors such as costs and schedule. The good news is that the attention brought to such scandals, especially the massive professional and legal fallout for Boeing, means that similar issues are less likely to occur in the future.

Even if absolved from criminal wrongdoing, one lesson to learn here is the lingering effects of lawsuits and other legal actions resulting from the loss of life, which can harm an organization’s long-term credibility, competitiveness, and financial stability. While calls for change usually always emerge after engineering decisions that become tragic and may cause loss of life, it has been argued by some that each new generation of engineers must seemingly relearn the same lessons. Such a process will require corporations, engineering societies, and teachers to be much more proactive in educating and supporting the ethical behavior of students as well as up-and-coming new engineers.

Ethics for Students

Students must maintain a constant commitment to adhere to academic ethics. Academic institutions such as colleges and universities strive to cultivate a healthy and ethically responsible environment for learning and training. Therefore, students must align with and follow their principles and policies to preserve the institution’s integrity. At the core of student ethical conduct is academic integrity, and it is critical that all students fully participate in maintaining and fostering academic integrity.

Academic integrity and ethical conduct are essential in all assignments not just those for credit, including homework, exams, laboratory reports, projects, presentations, etc. Students must be truthful in conveying their answers to any assignment as being representative of their own work without cheating or misrepresentation. In the case of group activities, then the entire group is held to this standard. Students who do not subscribe to following the standards of academic integrity can expect consequences such as sanctions, for example being given a failing grade on the assignment for a minor infraction to expulsion from the institution for severe or repeated infractions.

Plagiarism

Plagiarism is one type of unethical conduct and a violation of academic integrity. Plagiarism is presenting someone else’s writings or other work as one’s own work or using content or work products without citing or crediting the source. An example of plagiarism would be copying and pasting sentences, paragraphs, or other content, then submitting it as one’s work. Closely rewording (paraphrasing) content found from other sources, such as changing or adding a few words here or there, especially without citation, is also a form of plagiarism.

Self-plagiarism is also unethical and a violation of academic integrity. One example of self-plagiarism is using the same content (e.g., a previously graded homework or essay) to satisfy the requirements for another course or class. This type of academic integrity infraction would also apply to a repeat of the same class, even if taught by another instructor. Ethically, students must use their submitted work only once, unless an instructor has given explicit permission to the contrary.

Avoiding Cheating

Cheating is always an unethical practice, not just in an academic setting. Cheating, or even the perception of cheating, can be avoided by responsibly and ethically completing one’s own assignments, including homework and exams. In most cases, assignments will be completed individually unless a group activity has been assigned. A student should never copy work from another student or misrepresent another student’s work as their own. Examples of cheating would be copying homework answers from another student or using unauthorized resources during an exam. Such unauthorized resources may include unapproved electronic devices such as cell phones, solution manuals, tutoring services, texting, or anything else the instructor prohibits explicitly in the course policies.

Some other examples of cheating may include:

• Facilitating or aiding and abetting the cheating efforts of other students.
• Doing an assignment for another student, such as writing, editing, or rewriting the submission, in whole or in part.
• Copying or attempting to copy answers from another student during an exam.
• Having in their possession, without permission from the instructor, any exams or other materials belonging to faculty, staff, or another student.
• Giving another student answers to previous exam questions or other assignments unless the instructor or other faculty have expressly authorized the release of the answers.

 Copyright Issues

All engineers must be familiar with copyright issues and copyright law and the practical implications of the law on their day-to-day practices, work products, and other activities. Copyright matters are covered as part of U.S. and international law. In the U.S., the copyright law is published by the Copyright Office: https://www.copyright.gov/title17/. Copyright protects the creators of original work, e.g., reports, books, photographs, graphics, diagrams, figures, videos, music, etc. Remember that copyright law also applies to all forms of digital media, including software.

What Does Copyright Mean?

Copyright protection means that if someone creates an original work product, they own it. An original work means any authorship in a tangible medium of expression. Although there are exceptions, this rule generally always holds. Exceptions may include “works made for hire,” which means that if a work product is created for someone else who paid for it, such as an employer or some organization (e.g., as a consultant), then the employer or another party may be able to claim copyright ownership of your work. However, in this latter regard, shared authorship is usually considered to be standard practice.

Copyright also protects both published and unpublished works, i.e., a given work on tangible media does not need to be formally published to be covered by copyright law. Copyright also applies to most, if not all, college and university course materials such as a professor’s course packets, homework problems and solutions, exam questions, etc. It is a fallacy that the copyright symbol needs to be used and attached to copyright any work, and copyright is always implied on any authored materials that exist on any form of tangible media, physical or electronic.

Copyright law cannot protect intangibles, e.g., ideas. Just because someone has a good idea does not mean that it is immediately protected under copyright law. Nevertheless, if someone writes down or records the idea on any tangible media, including electronic formats, their idea will be immediately protected under copyright law.

Avoiding Copyright Infringement

It should always be assumed that copyright applies to all work products, published or otherwise. Copyright rules and laws apply from the date of creation plus 70 years after the author’s death, i.e., copyright is enforceable for the author’s entire lifetime plus 70 years beyond that. However, there are several categories in which copyrighted content may be published and also used by others, and caution should be used so that the copyright protocols and laws can be fully complied with.

Public Domain

When the copyright expires, then the work becomes in the public domain, which means that the work is available to the public at large without any concerns over who holds the rights to it, and so anyone can freely use the work in whatever form they want. However, if known, proper attribution is still an ethical responsibility, even though it may not be legally required.

U.S. Government publications are generally in the public domain, and all of their work products are not subject to copyright restrictions, at least in the U.S. Work done under U.S. Government contract (e.g., research at a university), generally belongs to the researcher and/or the students and/or the university. For example, the copyright of a thesis or dissertation, including the results and the data therein, will belong to the student and not to the sponsor of the work (if any). Nevertheless, sharing of research data is common practice, although any republication will always require permission of the creator from both an ethical and copyright perspective.

Some materials may already be in the public domain, but this is rare. Materials found on Wikipedia or Wikimedia and the like are generally not in the public domain even though they are often declared by the copyright holder as being open-source (e.g., under a Creative Commons license). Such works are generally not subject to any copyright restrictions other than appropriate attribution to the creator of the work.

Fair Use

What is known as “fair use” is an exception to the restrictions created by copyright law. Fair use applies mainly for academic, educational, or instructional purposes or for some other “not-for-profit” purposes, i.e., its use leads to no financial profit for the user of the work. Fair use extends to “brief excerpts” of the work, which is usually considered less than 10% of any given document, one figure, one photograph, etc., from one single source. Fair use, however, does not extend to entire documents.

In general, a question that is a good test of fair use is: “Does my use of someone else’s work decrease the value of the original work to the copyright holder?” If not, then it is fine to use the work under the terms of fair use. However, asking for the copyright holder’s permission and giving attribution is always a good idea; a simple acknowledgment may be all that is needed in most cases.

Only some copyright holders expect a royalty fee or other payment for the educational use of their work, but this should not be pre-assumed. Exceptions may include specific organizations or copyright clearing centers, which will expect copyright fees to be paid before any published work can be used in another work.

Creative Commons

Creative Commons is a non-profit organization that provides free, easy-to-use legal tools for creators and users of creative work. Creative Commons licenses allow creators to share their work with others while retaining certain rights. There are six different Creative Commons licenses, each with its own set of conditions. These conditions range from requiring attribution to the original creator to allowing commercial use of the work. By using a Creative Commons license, creators can ensure that their work is shared and used in a way that aligns with their goals and values.

Creative Commons licenses have been widely adopted by individuals, organizations, and governments around the world. They are used by artists, musicians, writers, educators, and scientists, among others, to share their work and promote collaboration and innovation. Many online platforms support Creative Commons licenses, making it easy for creators to share their work and for users to find and use it legally. For example, this e-Textbook is made available under a Creative Commons (CC), non-commercial, and non-derivative license.

Gaining Permissions

Using work products from other sources should generally always be done with permission, regardless of the copyright status. A work’s creator and copyright owner always has the right to dictate precisely how their work can be used. Usually, most authors are pleased that their work is helpful to others. Indeed, the copyright owner of a tangible medium such as a photograph or graphic will allow almost anyone to use their work with permission and attribution.

Gaining permission may require a request using a letter or an email, but the request and the permissions (if obtained) should always be in writing. Work published under a Creative Commons license should always be given the appropriate attribution even though explicit permission to use the work need not be obtained.

Penalties for Copyright Infringement

“Copyright infringement is the act of exercising, without permission or legal authority, one or more of the exclusive rights granted to the copyright owner under section 106 of the Copyright Act (Title 17 of the U.S. Code). These rights include the right to reproduce or distribute a copyrighted work. In the file-sharing context, downloading or uploading substantial parts of a copyrighted work without authority constitutes an infringement.”

Therefore, copyright infringement means using someone’s work without their permission or other means that do not align with the copyright declaration. Copyright infringement is an unlawful act that may have potential legal and criminal consequences, including fines or other penalties. It is illogical for an engineer, employer, student, etc., to risk the imposition of any sanctions or other penalties for improper use of content and potential copyright violations. Therefore, permissions should always be sought and explicitly given by the copyright holder.

Penalties for copyright infringement may be severe and can include civil and criminal penalties. Those liable for civil copyright infringement may be ordered to pay actual or statutory damages per each work that was infringed. In addition, for any willful infringement, a court may award up to $150,000 per work infringed. A court can also assess costs and attorneys’ fees. For more information, see the U.S. Copyright Office’s website at www.copyright.gov, especially their FAQ’s at www.copyright.gov/help/faq.

Remember that students are not exempt from the law, and copyright infringements will carry the same legal force as anyone else. Students who violate any copyright law may also be charged with violations of their college or university honor code, e.g., for fraud, which may result in sanctions such as probation or expulsion.

What is the DMCA?

The Digital Millennium Copyright Act or DMCA, is a 1998 addendum to U.S. copyright law. This law applies to copyrighted material in digital form that is uploaded to the internet. The DMCA becomes applicable if a person:

• Downloads copyrighted content from the internet and publishes it elsewhere without the copyright owner’s permission,
• Uploads copyrighted content to a website or other online platform without the copyright owner’s permission.
• Digitally shares any copyrighted work without the copyright owner’s permission.
• Shares copyrighted software tools or other copyrighted software, e.g., the person-to-person (or “P2P”) sharing of software.

Exceptions to downloading digital content may include fair use, which is considered acceptable in an academic setting but not always for other purposes. For any infringements of copyright law under DMCA, the copyright owner may ask that the online copyright infraction be suitably rectified. Remember that, like other parts of U.S. copyright law, legal and criminal penalties are defined under DMCA for copyright violations.

In the event of a DMCA Takedown Notice being filed by a copyright holder for a potential copyright violation on the internet or other online platform, then the online internet service provider is required by law to take specific actions. To this end, the law requires that the uploader is informed of the concern raised by the copyright holder and that the service provider immediately removes any infringed work. If there is no resolution, then legal and other actions may ensue, e.g., the uploader potentially faces a lawsuit from the copyright holder. In addition, legal resolution of any copyright infraction may result in civil and criminal penalties for the violator.

Ethical Scenarios to Consider

How you should & shouldn’t use ChatGPT as a student

ChatGPT is an artificial intelligence (AI) language model. According to ChatGTP itself: “I exist solely to provide information, answer questions, and engage in conversations. While AI technology continues to advance, it is ultimately humans who have control over its development and implementation. AI is designed to assist and augment human capabilities, not to replace or overpower them.”

As a student, ChatGPT can be a valuable tool to assist you with various tasks and enhance your learning experience. However, it is very important to use it effectively, responsibly, and ethically,  and also to understand its limitations.

1. Research and Learning: ChatGPT can help you find information and understand complex topics by providing explanations and examples. Use it to clarify concepts, gather different perspectives, and explore ideas. However, always cross-verify the information you receive and consult authoritative sources to ensure accuracy. ChatGTP has many shortcomings on engineering topics.
2. Writing Assistance: ChatGPT can be useful for generating ideas, overcoming writer’s block, and getting feedback on your writing. It can suggest alternative phrases, sentence structures, or provide examples. However, remember that it is still an AI model and not a substitute for your own critical thinking and creativity. Take the suggestions as starting points and tailor them to your own writing style.
3. Language Practice: Engaging in conversations with ChatGPT can help improve your language skills. You can practice grammar, vocabulary, and even have simulated discussions on various topics.
4. Problem-Solving and Programming: ChatGPT can assist you in understanding programming concepts, debugging code, and providing general problem-solving guidance. It can suggest possible solutions or help you identify errors. However, be cautious when relying on ChatGPT for programming tasks, as it may not always produce correct or optimized code.
5. Ethical Considerations: Remember that ChatGPT is a machine learning model trained on vast amounts of data. While it strives to provide helpful information, it may sometimes generate biased or incorrect responses. Be critical of the information it provides and assess its reliability. Avoid using ChatGPT for sensitive or personal topics that require human expertise or empathy.
6. Academic Integrity: It is important to remember that different universities have different stances on the use of AI tools. Some instructors will encourage you to use ChatGPT as a resource, while other instructors may ban it altogether. It is important to consult your own university’s academic integrity policy on the use of AI tools.
7. Privacy and Security: When using ChatGPT, be mindful of the information you share. Avoid sharing personal or sensitive data. Treat ChatGPT like any other public platform and refrain from sharing any of your private information.
8. Supplement Your Learning: ChatGPT should be seen as a supplementary tool, not a replacement for traditional learning resources, textbooks, or professors. Use it to complement your studies, clarify doubts, and explore new ideas. Always maintain a balanced approach to ensure comprehensive learning.

Remember that while ChatGPT can provide assistance, it is essential to take an active role in your own education. To this end, you should engage in critical thinking, seek diverse perspectives, consult reliable sources, speak with your professors, and actively participate in your own learning.

Summary & Closure

The field of aerospace engineering has ethical and legal responsibilities that all engineers must subscribe to and abide by. The profession has established these ethical principles over many decades. They establish an aerospace engineer’s standing in respect to their clients and employers, the profession as a whole, and the public at large. In addition, ethical policies may be part of regulatory law in some countries or jurisdictions so that ethical violations could result in civil or criminal penalties.

Copyright laws cover most engineering work products, and the ownership of the work belongs to whoever created it. However, in some cases, if the work is done for someone else (e.g., an employer), then it may be a “work for hire,” and the copyright of the work may belong to an employer. The bottom line is that people cannot do whatever they want with someone else’s work, and everyone should follow the law and seek permission to use the work products created by others. Copyright also applies to most online digital material, i.e., anything found on and/or used from the internet. Exceptions include work that is declared in the “public domain,'” which includes most work products of the U.S. government and those declared under a Creative Commons license.

Generally, permission to use the work should be obtained from the owner of the work, or you should abide by “fair use” principles. Fair use of content is entirely appropriate in an academic setting, such as for instructional or other educational use, but rarely for other uses. In many cases, there could be legal consequences, such as a lawsuit for copyright infractions, and this is never a good position to be in. As a student, it is important to understand and follow copyright laws, as they apply to everyone. Properly attributing works shows respect for the creators and demonstrates ethical and legal responsibility.