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Contents

  1. Welcome!

    1. Introduction to Aerospace Flight Vehicles

  2. Proemium

  3. Forward by Dr. Mark J. Lewis

  4. Acknowledgements

    1. Editorial Acknowledgments

  5. About the Author

  6. Using a Pressbooks Webbook

    1. Basic Navigation
    2. Download Options
    3. Search Feature
    4. Special Features In This Book
  7. I. Introductory

    1. 1. What is Aerospace Engineering?

      1. Introduction
      2. So You Want to be an Aerospace Engineer?
      3. Roles of Aerospace Engineers
      4. Engineering Problem Solving
      5. Aerodynamics: The Underpinning of Flight
      6. Propulsion Systems: The Power for Flight
      7. Structures and Materials: Carrying the Loads
      8. Flight Dynamics & Control: Flying on Course
      9. Systems Integration: Putting it all Together
      10. Thinking Toward the Future
      11. Being a Successful Engineer
      12. Summary & Closure

    2. 2. History of Aircraft & Aviation

      1. Introduction
      2. Early Ideas of Flight
      3. Invention of the Airplane
      4. First in Flight
      5. Period 1910–1930
      6. Period 1930–1950
      7. Development of Jet-Powered Aircraft
      8. Helicopters & V/STOL
      9. Supersonic Aircraft
      10. Regional Aircraft
      11. General Aviation
      12. Summary & Closure

    3. 3. History of Rockets & Space Flight

      1. Introduction
      2. The Quest for Space
      3. First Steps into Space
      4. To the Moon!
      5. Exploring the Planets
      6. Communication & Earth Observation Satellites
      7. Era of the Space Shuttle
      8. Space Stations
      9. Air-Launched Rockets
      10. Commercial Space Ventures
      11. NASA Space Launch System (SLS)
      12. SpaceX Starship
      13. Deep Space & Beyond
      14. Summary & Closure
  8. II. Getting into Details

    1. 4. Anatomy of Aircraft & Spacecraft

      1. Introduction
      2. Anatomy of Flight Vehicles
      3. Airplane Anatomy
      4. Forces of Flight & Flight Axes
      5. Flight Controls
      6. Flaps & Slats
      7. Main Wing Designs
      8. Tail or Empennage Designs
      9. Engine Placement
      10. Undercarriage Designs
      11. Anatomy of a Helicopter
      12. Anatomy of an Airship
      13. Anatomy of Spacecraft
      14. Summary & Closure

    2. 5. Aerospace Structures

      1. Introduction[footnote]The author is grateful to his structures teacher, Professor Henry Wong. He was an engineer for the Armstrong Siddeley Company, the Hunting Percival Aircraft Company, and the De Havilland Aircraft Company. Dr. Wong worked on the investigations of the De Havilland Comet airliner crashes, during which time there were significant advances in the understanding of the phenomenon of metal fatigue. He was a Professor of Aeronautics and Fluid Mechanics at the University of Glasgow from 1960 to 1987.[/footnote]
      2. Brief History of Aircraft Structures
      3. Types of Loads & Stresses
      4. Stress & Strain Relationships
      5. Buckling
      6. Stress Analyses
      7. Material Fatigue
      8. Fail-Safe & Safe-Life Designs
      9. Composite Structures
      10. Airframe Weight Estimation
      11. Spacecraft Structures
      12. Materials Selection Charts
      13. Additive Manufacturing & 3D Printing
      14. Summary & Closure

    3. 6. Aircraft Classifications & Regulations

      1. Introduction
      2. Overview of Aircraft Classifications
      3. Uses of Aircraft
      4. Civil Aircraft Types & Classifications
      5. Special Categories
      6. Unoccupied Aircraft
      7. Aviation & Aeronautical Regulations
      8. Details of Federal Aviation Regulations
      9. Other Airworthiness Documents
      10. Regulations for Unoccupied Aircraft & Drones
      11. Regulations for Commercial Space Operations
      12. Summary & Closure

    4. 7. Professional Responsibilities, Ethics, & Copyright

      1. Introduction
      2. Differences Between Morals and Ethics
      3. Aerospace Code of Ethics
      4. Facing Ethical Issues
      5. Examples of Ethical Concerns
      6. Ethics for Students
      7. Copyright Issues
      8. Ethical Scenarios to Consider
      9. How you should & shouldn’t use ChatGPT as a student
      10. Summary & Closure

    5. 8. Mathematics for Engineering

      1. Introduction
      2. Algebra
      3. Calculus
      4. Vectors
      5. Scalar and Vector Fields
      6. Scalar Products
      7. Vector Products
      8. Differentiating a Vector
      9. Line Integrals
      10. Surface Integrals
      11. Unit Normal Vector
      12. Volume Integrals
      13. Integral Relations
      14. Gradient of a Scalar Field
      15. Divergence of a Vector Field
      16. Curl of a Vector Field
      17. Physical Laws in Engineering
      18. Laplace Operator
      19. Substantial Derivative Operator
      20. Ordinary Differential Equations (ODEs)
      21. Partial Differential Equations (PDEs)
      22. Working with Numbers
      23. Summary & Closure
  9. III. Fluid Properties & Hydrostatics

    1. 9. Fundamental Properties of Fluids

      1. Introduction
      2. What is a Fluid?
      3. Continuum Versus Free Molecule Flow
      4. Fluid Pressure
      5. Fluid Density
      6. Fluid Temperature
      7. Equation of State
      8. Fluid Viscosity
      9. Flow Velocity
      10. Streamlines
      11. Speed of Sound
      12. Surface Tension
      13. Summary & Closure

    2. 10. Fluid Statics & the Aero-Hydrostatic Equation

      1. Introduction
      2. Pascal’s Law
      3. Archimedes’ Principle
      4. Aerostatic & Hydrostatic Pressure Field
      5. Effects of Gravity Alone
      6. Special Solutions to the Aero-Hydrostatic Equation
      7. “Rules” of Manometry
      8. Hydrostatic Paradox
      9. Proof of Archimedes’ Principle
      10. Pressure Forces on Submerged Surfaces
      11. U-tube Manometer
      12. Hydraulic Press
      13. Digital Manometers & Pressure Transducers
      14. Summary & Closure

    3. 11. Atmospheric Properties

      1. Introduction
      2. Composition of the Atmosphere
      3. General Properties of the Atmosphere
      4. Development of the ISA model
      5. Equations of the ISA in the Troposphere
      6. Correction Factors for Humidity
      7. Other Atmospheric Models
      8. Tables of ISA Properties
      9. Satellite Drag
  10. IV. Introduction to Fluid Dynamics

    1. 12. Types of Fluid Flows

      1. Introduction
      2. Laminar & Turbulent Flows
      3. Ideal Flow
      4. Steady Versus Unsteady Flows
      5. Compressible Versus Incompressible Flows
      6. Mach Number Effects
      7. Swirling Vortex Flows
      8. Summary & Closure

    2. 13. Dimensional Analysis

      1. Introduction
      2. All About Units
      3. Physical Quantities
      4. Finding Base Dimensions
      5. Aerodynamic Force on a Wing
      6. Basis of Dimensional Analysis
      7. The Buckingham Π Method
      8. Π Method Applied to the Drag on a Sphere
      9. Π Method Applied to a Wing
      10. Other Worked Examples
      11. Other Dimensionless Quantities
      12. Conversion Factors
      13. Summary & Closure

    3. 14. Mach Number & Reynolds Number

      1.  Introduction
      2. Definition of Mach Number
      3. Speed of Sound
      4. Supersonic Airfoil
      5. Definition of Reynolds Number
      6. Physical Importance of Reynolds Number
      7. Summary & Closure

    4. 15. Dynamic Similarity

      1. Introduction
      2. Aerodynamic Similarity
      3. Similitude in Other Engineering Fields
      4. Summary & Closure

    5. 16. Problem Solving & Modeling

      1. Introduction
      2. Hypothetico-Deductive Method
      3. Starting Out
      4. Setting Up Aerodynamic Models
      5. Verification and Validation
      6. Multi-Disciplinary Problems
      7. Problem-Solving Process
      8. Ockham’s Razor – The KIS2 Principle
      9. Attention Students! Approaching Homework Problems
      10. all those Equations!
      11. What is Brainstorming?
      12. Summary & Closure
  11. V. Models of Fluid Motion

    1. 17. Equations of Fluid Motion

      1. Introduction
      2. Setting up Flow Models
      3. Conservation equations
      4. Flow Models
      5. Setting up the Finite Control Volume Approach
      6. Mass Flow and Mass Flux
      7. Momentum & Energy Flow RaTes
      8. Extensive & Intensive Properties
      9. Reynolds Transport Theorem
      10. Summary & Closure

    2. 18. Conservation of Mass: Continuity Equation

      1. Introduction
      2. Flow Model
      3. Conservation of Mass
      4. Simplifications of the Continuity Equation
      5. Flow Through a Converging/Diverging Duct
      6. Flow Through a Branched Duct
      7. Time-Dependent Flows
      8. Derivation of the Continuity Equation using the RTE
      9. Summary & Closure

    3. 19. Conservation of Momentum: Momentum Equation

      1. Introduction
      2. Setting Up the Momentum Equation
      3. Simplifications to the Momentum Equation
      4. Derivation of the Momentum Equation using the RTE
      5. Summary & Closure

    4. 20. Conservation of Energy: Energy Equation & Bernoulli’s Equation

      1. Introduction
      2. Setting Up the Energy Equation
      3. Simplifications of the Energy Equation
      4. Bernoulli’s Equation
      5. Alternative Derivation of Bernoulli’s Equation
      6. Other Compressible Forms of the Bernoulli Equation
      7. Summary & Closure

    5. 21. Applications of the Conservation Laws

      1. Introduction
      2. Flow in a Venturi
      3. Applications of a Venturi
      4. Syphon
      5. Total, Static, & Dynamic Pressure
      6. Pitot Tube & Pitot-Static Tube
      7. Jet Engine Performance
      8. Drag on a Two-Dimensional body
      9. Propeller Performance
      10. Summary & Closure
  12. VI. Airfoil & Wing Aerodynamics

    1. 22. Wing Shapes & Nomenclature

      1. Introduction
      2. Geometric Definition of a Wing
      3. Airfoil Sections
      4. Dihedral & Anhedral
      5. Calculation of Wing Area
      6. Calculation of Wing Aspect Ratio
      7. Winglets
      8. Mean Chords
      9. Linearly Tapered Wing
      10. Summary & Closure

    2. 23. Airfoil Geometries

      1. Introduction
      2. Shape of an Airfoil
      3. Early History of Airfoils
      4. NACA Method of Drawing Airfoil Shapes
      5. Symmetric NACA Airfoils
      6. Cambered NACA Airfoils
      7. Other NACA Airfoils
      8. Grid Generation for CFD
      9. Supersonic Airfoils
      10. Transonic Airfoils
      11. Examples to Try
      12. Summary & Closure

    3. 24. Boundary Layers

      1. Introduction
      2. History
      3. Laminar & Turbulent Boundary Layers
      4. Shear Stresses & Skin Friction
      5. Development of a Boundary Layer
      6. Distance-Based Reynolds Number
      7. Pressure Gradients & Flow Separation
      8. Summary of Boundary Layer Characteristics
      9. Flow Separation on a Lifting Surface
      10. Laminar Boundary Layer: Blasius Solution
      11. Turbulent Boundary Layer
      12. Visualizing the Boundary Layer
      13. Skin Friction Drag on an Airfoil
      14. Effect of Surface Roughness
      15. Boundary Layer Flow Control
      16. Other Properties of Boundary Layers
      17. Summary & Closure

    4. 25. Aerodynamics of Airfoil Sections

      1. Introduction
      2. Origin of Aerodynamic Forces
      3. What is Two-Dimensional Flow?
      4. Dynamic Pressure
      5. Airfoil Forces and Moments
      6. Force and Moment Coefficients
      7. Representative Force & Moment Coefficients
      8. Lift Characteristics
      9. Effect of Flaps
      10. Drag Characteristics
      11. Drag Polars
      12. Effects of Reynolds Number
      13. Effects of Mach Number
      14. Pitching Moments
      15. Center of Pressure & Aerodynamic center
      16. Pressure & Shear Stress Coefficients
      17. Integration of Pressures & Shear Stresses
      18. Typical Pressure Distributions
      19. Numerical Integration of Pressure
      20. Supersonic Airfoils
      21. Transonic Airfoils
      22. Summary & Closure

    5. 26. Aerodynamics of Finite Wings

      1. Introduction
      2. Origin of Trailing Vortices
      3. Effects of Trailing Vortices
      4. Wing Force & Moment Coefficients
      5. Drag Polar for a Finite Wing
      6. Calculating the Lift & Drag on a Finite Wing
      7. Drag Polar for an Airplane
      8. Thrust Required for Flight
      9. Generalization of the Aircraft Drag Polar
      10. Winglets
      11. Effects of Compressibility & Wing Sweep
      12. Examples of Aircraft Drag Polars
      13. Center of Pressure & Aerodynamic Center
      14. Vortex Wake Upsets
      15. Summary & Closure
  13. VII. Bluff Body Flows & Internal Flows

    1. 27. Aerodynamics of Bluff Bodies

      1. Introduction
      2. Drag Coefficients
      3. Drag Coefficients of Simple Shapes
      4. Flow Patterns About a Circular Cylinder
      5. Drag of Circular Cylinders & Spheres
      6. WhY do Golf Balls Have Dimples?
      7. Aerodynamics of Spinning Balls
      8. Complex Three-Dimensional Bluff Bodies
      9. Vortex Induced Vibration
      10. Streamlining
      11. Streamlining of Terrestrial Vehicles
      12. Creating Drag – Parachutes
      13. Bluff Bodies at Supersonic Speeds
      14. Summary & Closure

    2. 28. Internal Fluid Flows

      1. Introduction
      2. Internal Versus External Flows
      3. Internal Flow Problems in Aerospace Applications
      4. Pumps
      5. Internal Pipe Flows
      6. Entrance Length
      7. Hydraulic Diameter
      8. Laminar Flow in Pipes
      9. Quantifying the Pressure Drop
      10. Turbulent Flows in Pipes
      11. Colebrook-White Equation
      12. Moody Chart
      13. Roughness Values
      14. Pressure DRop Over a Tapered Pipe
      15. Pressure Drops over Bends & Corners
      16. Design of a Wind Tunnel
      17. Pressure Losses in Wind Tunnels
      18. Summary & Closure
  14. VIII. Basis of Airplane Performance

    1. 29. Aircraft Equations of Motion

      1. Introduction
      2. Assumptions
      3. Primary Forces on an Airplane
      4. Straight & Level Flight
      5. Climbing Flight
      6. Turning Flight
      7. Summary of the Equations of Flight
      8. Limiting Airspeeds & Load Factors
      9. Summary & Closure

    2. 30. Introduction to Propulsion Systems

      1. Introduction
      2. Types of Propulsion Systems
      3. Piston Engines
      4. Turbojet, Turbofans & Turboshaft Engines
      5. Air-Breathing Propulsion Fundamentals
      6. Quantifying Propulsive Efficiency
      7. Afterburning
      8. Rocket Propulsion Fundamentals
      9. Electric Propulsion
      10. Summary & Closure

    3. 31. Airspeed Definitions & Measurement

      1. Introduction
      2. Airspeed & Mach Number
      3. Definitions of Airspeeds
      5. Recap: Pitot & Pitot-Static Tubes
      6. Practical Measurement of Total & Static Pressures
      7. Airspeed Measurement at Higher Mach Numbers
      8. Summary: Airspeed Definitions
      9. Summary & Closure

    4. 32. Altitude Definitions & Measurement

      1. Introduction
      2. What is an Altimeter?
      3. Review of ISA Pressure & Density Variations
      4. Pressure Altitude
      5. Density Altitude
      6. Relating Density Altitude & Pressure Altitude
      7. Measuring Outside Air Temperature
      8. Practical Use of Density Altitude
      9. Electronic Flight Displays (EFD)
      10. Summary & Closure
  15. IX. Details of Propulsion Systems

    1. 33. Piston Engines & Propellers

      1. Introduction
      2. Reciprocating Piston Engines
      3. Principle of Operation
      4. Effects on Power
      5. Engine Performance Charts
      6. Brake Specific Fuel Consumption (BSFC)
      7. Propeller Performance
      8. Propeller Performance Charts
      9. Summary & Closure

    2. 34. Turbojet Engines

      1. Introduction
      2. Basic Design of a Turbojet
      3. Operational Principle
      4. Basis of Thrust Production
      5. THRUST-SPECIFIC Fuel Consumption (TSFC)
      6. Afterburning
      7. Ramjets
      8. Summary & Closure

    3. 35. Turbofan & Turboprop Engines

      1. Introduction
      2. Design Characteristics of a Turbofan
      3. Thrust Production
      4. Thrust Specific Fuel Consumption (TSFC)
      5. Design of a Turboprop
      6. Turboshaft Engines
      7. Open Rotor Design
      8. How Many Engines?
      9. Summary & Closure

    4. 36. Rockets & Rocket Propulsion

      1. Introduction[footnote] Prof. Eric "Rick" Perrell wrote the initial drafts of this chapter.[/footnote]
      2. Types of Rockets & Applications
      3. Rocket Propulsion Fundamentals
      4. Steering a Rocket
      5. Types of Rocket Motors
      6. HIGH-THRUST Rocket Propulsion Systems
      7. Total Impulse & Specific Impulse
      8. Rocket Equation
      9. Energy Requirements for a Launch Vehicle
      10. Staged Rocket Vehicles
      11. Summary & Closure
  16. X. Airplane Flight Performance

    1. 37. Steady Level-Flight Operations

      1. Introduction
      2. Performance Characteristics of an Airplane
      3. Calculation of In-Flight Weight
      4. Jet-Propelled Airplane
      5. Propeller-Driven Airplane
      6. Avian Flight
      7. Summary & Closure

    2. 38. Flight Range & Endurance

      1. Introduction
      2. Fuel Flow & Specific Fuel Consumption
      3. Fuel Flow Curves – Propeller Airplanes
      4. Fuel Flow Curves – Jet Airplanes
      5. Total Fuel Burn
      6. Breguet Equations
      7. Payload-Range & Endurance Charts
      8. Summary & Closure

    3. 39. Climbing, Ceiling & Gliding

      1. Introduction
      2. Steady Climbing Flight
      3. Rate of Climb & Excess Power
      4. Hodograph Method
      5. Effects of Altitude
      6. Determining Rates of Climb – Analytical Approach
      7. Accelerated Climb
      8. Time to Climb
      9. Ceiling
      10. Gliding Flight
      11. Sailplanes & Gliders
      12. Summary & Closure

    4. 40. Takeoff & Landing Performance

      1. Introduction
      2. Takeoff Performance
      3. Landing Performance
      4. Physics of “Ground Effect”
      5. Summary & Closure

    5. 41. Level-Flight Performance Envelopes

      1. Introduction
      2. Flight Envelopes
      3. Trimmed Flight
      4. Stalling Airspeeds
      5. Limiting (Maximum) Cruise Speeds
      6. Supercritical Flows & Drag Rise
      7. Reducing Compressibility Drag
      8. Flight Ceilings
      9. Representative Flight Envelopes
      10. Other Possible Limiting Factors
      11. Summary & Closure

    6. 42. Maneuvers & Gusts

      1. Introduction
      2. Aircraft Equations of Motion
      3. Maneuvers in a Vertical Plane
      4. Maneuvers in a Horizontal Plane
      5. Airspeed-Load Factor Diagram
      6. Gust-Induced Airloads
      7. Summary & Closure
  17. XI. Topics for Further Study

    1. 43. Stalling & Spinning

      1. Introduction
      2. Stalling Airspeeds & Angles of Attack
      3. General Flow Physics of Stall
      4. Two-Dimensional Stall Characteristics
      5. Three-Dimensional Stall
      6. Importance of HIGH-LIFT Devices
      7. Stall Control Devices
      8. Spinning
      9. Summary & Closure

    2. 44. Airplane Stability & Control

      1. Introduction[footnote]The author acknowledges his teacher, Arthur W. Babister. Dr. Babister was a flight dynamics engineer at the Blackburn Aircraft Company,