Three equal vertical bands of green (hoist side), white, and red; design inspired by the French flag brought to Italy by Napoleon in 1797. Colors are those of Milan (red and white) combined with the green uniform color of the Milanese civic guard.

Flag courtesy of the CIA World Factbook

Map courtesy of the CIA World Factbook

Google Earth

The Roman Colosseum’s arena was a wooden floor covered with sand, underlain with rooms and passageways for performers, sets, and animals. Spectator seating was divided into three sections: ordinary people sat in the upper level, the better off in the middle sections, and the elite in the lower level.

Photo courtesy of the CIA World Factbook

Government

According to Britannica, the Italian state grew out of the kingdom of Sardinia-Piedmont, where in 1848 King Charles Albert introduced a constitution that remained the basic law, of his kingdom and later of Italy, for nearly 100 years. It provided for a bicameral parliament with a cabinet appointed by the king. With time, the power of the crown diminished, and ministers became responsible to parliament rather than to the king. Although the constitution remained formally in force after the fascists seized power in 1922, it was devoid of substantial value. After World War II, on June 2, 1946, the Italians voted in a referendum to replace the monarchy with a republic. A Constituent Assembly worked out a new constitution, which came into force on January 1, 1948.

The constitution of Italy has built-in guarantees against easy amendment, in order to make it virtually impossible to replace it with a dictatorial regime. It is upheld and watched over by the Constitutional Court, and the republican form of government cannot be changed. The constitution contains some preceptive principles, applicable from the moment it came into force, and some programmatic principles, which can be realized only by further enabling legislation.

The constitution is preceded by the statement of certain basic principles, including the definition of Italy as a democratic republic, in which sovereignty belongs to the people (Article 1). Other principles concern the inviolable rights of man, the equality of all citizens before the law, and the obligation of the state to abolish social and economic obstacles that limit the freedom and equality of citizens and hinder the full development of individuals (Articles 2 and 3).

Many forms of personal freedom are guaranteed by the constitution: the privacy of correspondence (Article 15); the right to travel at home and abroad (Article 16); the right of association for all purposes that are legal, except in secret or paramilitary societies (Article 18); and the right to hold public meetings, if these are consistent with security and public safety (Article 17). There is no press censorship, and freedom of speech and writing is limited only by standards of public morality (Article 21). The constitution stresses the equality of spouses in marriage and the equality of their children to each other (Articles 29 and 30). Family law has seen many reforms, including the abolition of the husband’s status as head of the household and the legalization of divorce and abortion. One special article in the constitution concerns the protection of linguistic minorities (Article 6).

The constitution establishes the liberty of all religions before the law (Article 8) but also recognizes the special status granted the Roman Catholic Church by the Lateran Treaty in 1929 (Article 7). That special status was modified and reduced in importance by a new agreement between church and state in 1985. Because of these changes and the liberal tendencies manifested by the church after the Second Vatican Council in the 1960s, religion is much less a cause of political and social friction in contemporary Italy than it was in the past.

The constitution is upheld by the Constitutional Court, which is composed of 15 judges, of whom 5 are nominated by the president of the republic, 5 are elected by parliament, and 5 are elected by judges from other courts. Members must have certain legal qualifications and experience. The term of office is nine years, and Constitutional Court judges are not eligible for reappointment.

The court performs four major functions. First, it judges the constitutionality of state and regional laws and of acts having the force of law. Second, the court resolves jurisdictional conflicts between ministries or administrative offices of the central government or between the state and a particular region or between two regions. Third, it judges indictments instituted by parliament. When acting as a court of indictment, the 15 Constitutional Court judges are joined by 16 additional lay judges chosen by parliament. Fourth, the court determines whether or not it is permissible to hold referenda on particular topics. The constitution specifically excludes from the field of referenda financial decisions, the granting of amnesties and pardons, and the ratification of treaties.

Parliament is bicameral and comprises the Chamber of Deputies and the Senate. All members of the Chamber of Deputies (the lower house) are popularly elected via a system of proportional representation, which serves to benefit minor parties. Most members of the Senate (the higher chamber) are elected in the same manner, but the Senate also includes several members appointed by the president and former presidents appearing ex officio, all of whom serve life terms.

In theory, the Senate should represent the regions and in this way differ from the lower chamber, but in practice the only real difference between them lies in the minimum age required for the electorate and the candidates: 18 and 25 years, respectively, for deputies and 25 and 40 for senators. Deputies and senators alike are elected for a term of five years, which can be extended only in case of war. Parliamentarians cannot be penalized for opinions expressed or votes cast, and deputies or senators are not obligated to vote according to the wishes of their constituents. Unless removed by parliamentary action, deputies and senators enjoy immunity from arrest, criminal trial, and search. Their salary is established by law, and they qualify for a pension.

Both houses are officially organized into parliamentary parties. Each house also is organized into standing committees, which reflect the proportions of the parliamentary groups. However, the chairmanship of parliamentary committees is not the exclusive monopoly of the majority. Besides studying bills, these committees act as legislative bodies. The parliamentary rules have followed the United States’ pattern and have given the standing committees extensive powers of control over the government and administration. All these features explain why the government has a limited ability to control the legislative agenda and why parliamentarians are often able to vote contrary to party instructions and to avoid electoral accountability. The abolition of secret voting on most parliamentary matters at the end of the 1980s did not significantly change this situation.

Special majorities are required for constitutional legislation and for the election of the president of the republic, Constitutional Court judges, and members of the Superior Council of the Magistrature. The two houses meet jointly to elect and swear in the president of the republic and to elect one-third of the members of the Superior Council of the Magistrature and one-third of the judges of the Constitutional Court. They may also convene to impeach the president of the republic, the president of the Council of Ministers, or individual ministers.

Each year, the annual budget and the account of expenditure for the past financial year are presented to parliament for approval. The budget, however, does not cover all public expenditure, nor does it include details of the budgets of many public bodies, over which, therefore, parliament has no adequate control. International treaties are ratified by means of special laws.

The most important function of parliament is ordinary legislation. Bills may be presented in parliament by the government, by individual members, or by bodies such as the National Council for Economy and Labour, various regional councils, or communes, as well as by petition of 50,000 citizens of the electorate or through a referendum. Bills are passed either by the standing committees or by parliament as a whole. In either case, the basic procedure is the same. First, there is a general debate followed by a vote; then, each of the bill’s separate articles is discussed and voted on; finally, a last vote is taken on the entire bill. All bills must be approved by both houses before they become law; thus, whenever one house introduces an amendment to the draft approved by the other house, the latter must approve the amended draft.

The law is then promulgated by the president of the republic. If the president considers it unconstitutional or inappropriate, it is remanded to parliament for reconsideration. If the bill is, nevertheless, passed a second time, the president is obliged to promulgate it. The law comes into force when published in the Gazzetta Ufficiale.

The president of the republic is the head of state and serves a term of seven years. The prosecutorial immunity that applies to members of the legislature does not extend to the chief executive, and the president can be impeached for high treason or offenses against the constitution, even while in office. The president is elected by a college comprising both chambers of parliament, together with three representatives from every region. The two-thirds majority required guarantees that the president is acceptable to a sufficient proportion of the populace and the political partners. The minimum age for presidential candidates is 50 years. If the president is temporarily unable to carry out his functions, the president of the Senate acts as the deputy. If the impediment is permanent or if it is a case of death or resignation, a presidential election must be held within 15 days.

Special powers and responsibilities are vested in the president of the republic, who promulgates laws and decrees having the force of law, calls special sessions of parliament, delays legislation, authorizes the presentation of government bills in parliament, and, with parliamentary authorization, ratifies treaties and declares war. However, some of these acts are duties that must be performed by the president, whereas others have no validity unless countersigned by the government. The president commands the armed forces and presides over the Supreme Council of Defense and the Superior Council of the Magistrature.

Presidents may dissolve parliament either on their own initiative (except during the last six months of their term of office), having consulted the presidents of both chambers, or at the request of the government. They may appoint 5 lifetime members of the Senate, and they appoint 5 of the 15 Constitutional Court judges. They also appoint the president of the Council of Ministers, the equivalent of a prime minister. Whenever a government is defeated or resigns, it is the duty of the president of the republic, after consulting eminent politicians and party leaders, to appoint the person most likely to win the confidence of parliament; this person is usually designated by the majority parties, and the president has limited choice.

The government comprises the president of the Council of Ministers and the various other ministers responsible for particular departments. Ministerial appointments are negotiated by the parties constituting the government majority. Each new government must receive a vote of confidence in both houses of parliament within 10 days of its appointment. If at any time the government fails to maintain the confidence of either house, it must resign. Splits in the coalition of two or more parties that had united to form a government have caused most of the resignations of governments.

According to the constitution, the president of the Council of Ministers is solely responsible for directing government policies and coordinating administrative policy and activity. In reality, the president tends to function as a negotiator between government parties and factions. The government can issue emergency decree laws signed by the president of the republic, provided such laws are presented to parliament for authorization the day they are issued and receive its approval within 60 days. Without such approval, they automatically lapse. The government and, in certain cases, individual ministers issue administrative regulations and provisions, which are then promulgated by presidential decree.

The republic is divided into regions (regioni), provinces (province), and communes (comuni). There are 15 ordinary regions and an additional 5 to which special autonomy has been granted. The regions with ordinary powers are Piedmont, Lombardy, Veneto, Liguria, Emilia-Romagna, Tuscany, Umbria, Marche, Lazio, Abruzzo, Molise, Campania, Puglia, Basilicata, and Calabria. Italy can thus be considered a regional state. The modern regions correspond to the traditional territorial divisions. The powers of the five special regions, which are Sicily, Sardinia, Trentino, Alto Adige, Friuli, Venezia Giulia, and Valle d’Aosta, derive from special statutes adopted through constitutional laws.

The organs of regional government are the regional council, a popularly elected deliberative body with power to pass laws and issue administrative regulations; the regional committee, an executive body elected by the council from among its own members; and the president of the regional committee. The regional committee and its president are required to resign if they fail to retain the confidence of the council. Voting in the regional councils is rarely by secret ballot.

Participation in national government is a principal function of the regions: regional councils may initiate parliamentary legislation, propose referenda, and appoint three delegates to assist in presidential elections, except for the Valle d’Aosta region, which has only one delegate. With regard to regional legislation, the five special regions have exclusive competence in certain fields, such as agriculture, forestry, and town planning, while the ordinary regions have competence over them within the limits of fundamental principles established by state laws.

The legislative powers of both special and ordinary regions are subject to certain constitutional limitations, the most important of which is that regional acts may not conflict with national interests. The regions can also enact legislation necessary for the enforcement of state laws when the latter contain the necessary provisions. The regions have administrative competence in all fields in which they have legislative competence. Additional administrative functions can be delegated by state laws. The regions have the right to acquire property and the right to collect certain revenues and taxes.

The state has powers of control over the regions. The validity of regional laws that are claimed to be illegal can be tested in the Constitutional Court, while those considered inexpedient can be challenged in parliament. State supervisory committees presided over by government-appointed commissioners exercise control over administrative acts. The government has power to dissolve regional councils that have acted contrary to the constitution or have violated the law. In such an event, elections must be held within three months.

The organs of the commune, the smallest local government unit, are the popularly elected communal council, the communal committee, or executive body, and the mayor. The communes have the power to levy and collect limited local taxes, and they have their own police, although their powers are much inferior to those exercised by the national police. The communes issue ordinances and run certain public health services, and they are responsible for such services as public transportation, garbage collection, and street lighting. Regions have some control over the activity of the communes. Communal councils may be dissolved for reasons of public order or for continued neglect of their duties.

The organization of the provinces, units midway in size between regions and communes, is analogous to that of the communes; they each have councils, committees, and presidents. Since 1990 several laws that modify the organization of these local autonomies have been introduced in a trend toward greater decentralization.

There are certain central government officials whose duties lie in the sphere of local government. These include the government commissioner of each region, who supervises the administrative functions performed by the state and coordinates them with those performed by the region; the prefect, resident in each province, who is responsible for enforcing the orders of the central government and has powers of control over the organs of the province and communes; and the questore, who is the provincial chief of the state-run police.

Particular local government officials also have central government duties: among them are the president of the regional committee who, in directing the administrative functions that the state delegates to the region, performs a specific state duty; and the mayor of a commune who, in his capacity as an agent of the central government, registers births, deaths, marriages, and migrations, maintains public order (though in practice this is dealt with by the national police), and can, in cases of emergency, issue ordinances concerning public health, town planning, and the local police.

The Italian judicial system consists of a series of courts and a body of judges who are civil servants. Judges and prosecutors belong to the same civil service sector, and their positions are interchangeable. The judicial system is unified, with every court being part of the national network. The highest court in the central hierarchy is the Supreme Court of Cassation; it has appellate jurisdiction and gives judgments only on points of law. The 1948 constitution prohibits special courts with the exception of administrative courts and courts-martial, although a vast network of tax courts has survived from an earlier period. The administrative courts have two functions: the protection of interessi legittimi, that is, the protection of individual interests directly connected with public interests and protected only for that reason, and the supervision and control of public funds.

Administrative courts are also provided by the judicial sections of the Council of State, the oldest juridical-administrative advisory organ of government. The Court of Accounts has both an administrative and a judicial function; the latter involves primarily fiscal affairs. The Superior Council of the Magistrature, provided for by the constitution and intended to guarantee the independence and integrity of the judiciary, was formed only in 1958. It attends to the careers, assignments, and disciplining of judges. Two-thirds of its members are elected by the judges and one-third by parliament. The president and the public prosecutor of the Court of Cassation also belong to it. Elections tend to politicize the council, which has become an influential force in Italian politics.

Italian law is codified and based on Roman law, in particular as regards civil law. The codes of the kingdom of Sardinia in civil and penal affairs, derived from the Napoleonic Code, were extended to the whole of Italy when unification was achieved in the mid-19th century. In the period between World War I and II, these codes were revised. The Constitutional Court has declared a number of articles unconstitutional. The revised 1990 penal code replaced the old inquisitory system with an accusatory system akin to that of common-law countries. Besides the codes, there are innumerable statute laws that integrate the codes and regulate areas of law, such as public law, for which no codes exist.

The constitution stresses the principle that the judiciary should be independent of the legislature and the executive. For this reason, jurisdictional functions can be performed only by ordinary magistrates, and extraordinary tribunals may not be set up. Judges cannot be dismissed, they are not subject to hierarchical superiors, and their careers rest on seniority.

The organized crime group known collectively as the Mafia (though regionally recognized as the Camorra in Naples, the ’Ndrangheta in Calabria, and the Sacra Corona Unita in Puglia) has a long history in Italy, particularly in Sicily, and it has followed the Italian diaspora to foreign countries, notably the United States. Nearly eliminated by Benito Mussolini during the interwar period and revived after World War II, the Mafia resurged in the mid-20th century with the rise of international drug trafficking but faced increased homeland opposition from the Italian justice system in the later years of the century. As government prosecution of its activities increased in the 1970s, ’80s, and early ’90s, the Mafia struck back by assassinating magistrates and judges who had aggressively targeted organized crime.

Popular resistance to the Mafia increased in the early 21st century as business owners increasingly refused to pay the pizzo, a “protection” fee demanded by local crime organizations. The pizzo, which extracted an estimated €200 million per day from Italian businesses, represented a vital revenue stream for the Mafia. The Addiopizzo (“Goodbye, pizzo”) movement coalesced around consumers and businesses who rejected the Mafia’s presence in everyday life, and Italy’s most powerful business association threatened to expel any of its members who paid the pizzo.

Italian Civil Aviation Authority (ENAC)

ENAC‘s registered office is in Rome. As established by the founding decree n. 250/97 the President, the Board of Directors, the Board of Auditors and the General Manager are chosen from among subjects with particular skills and experience relating to air transport and aviation. The procedure for the appointment of the President foresees the designation by the Council of Ministers on the proposal of the Minister of Transport, and then the opinion of the Transport Commissions of the Chamber and Senate and finally the Decree appointing the President of the Republic. For the appointment of the General Manager and the Board of Directors, on the other hand, the President of the Council of Ministers decrees. The General Manager is assisted by a Deputy General Manager appointed by the Board of Directors on the proposal of the President. The Board of Auditors, consisting of a president and two members, is appointed by decree of the Minister of Transport.

Airspace

SkyVector – Google Maps – ADS-B Exchange

ICAO countries publish an Aeronautical Information Publication (AIP). This document is divided into three parts: General (GEN), En Route (ENR) and Aerodromes (AD). ENR 1.4 details the types of airspace classes they chose to adopt from classes A through G. Italy AIP (requires Login)

Airspace management for drone activities

RPA’s (Remoted Piloted Aircraft) or drones are becoming more and more popular for many activities. ENAC, following EASA and EUROCONTROL activities in this field, is working on:

1. Operations in critical areas, e.g. ATZ. A new circular will be issued to manage this kind of activities;
2. Operations in BVLOS. The target is operations in non segregated airspace.

Procedures for drones activities are included in ATM-05 circular (only Italian language).

Drone Regulations

enav drone rules

Unmanned aircraft – commonly known as drones – have different technical characteristics and dimensions. Able to carry out disparate missions, they are now part of the daily life of professionals and amateurs

The initial services available through the portal are:

• Account registration and management: a procedure that enables users wanting to use drones to register on the portal for access to services reserved to both recreational and professional operators
• Consultation of no-fly zones: this enables members to view areas where drone flight is not permitted
• Drone tracking: real-time reception of a drone’s location in a central control room
• BVLOS (Beyond Visual Line of Sight) mission planning: this makes it possible to plan missions beyond the operator’s line of sight, using the tracking functions and supporting the assessment of the safety of the proposed mission in relation to the possible interference it may cause

These services will make it possible to fully exploit the potential of aerial drones for a variety of highly important activities, such as infrastructure monitoring, inspections, photogrammetry, environmental surveys and many other market opportunities that will follow the technological implementation of remotely piloted vehicles.

enac drone laws

Holders of UAS pilot certificate issued by Non EASA/EU countries

OPEN Category

Before starting operations pilot must check on d-flight website if the area is allowed for UAS OPEN operations.

If you hold a national certificate issued by your National Aviation Authority please be aware that the regulation in force does not allow any type of conversion or recognition by the national civil aviation Authorities. Subsequently this certificate won’t be valid within EU/EASA countries, as such you will need to achieve one of the certificates required for the OPEN category (A1-A3 or A2) in any EASA/EU member state.

In order to perform the A1-A3 or A2 examination on ENAC website please follow the below procedure (multichoice test available in Italian language only):

• Enter ENAC website at the WEB Services page
• Use the dropdown menu located in the top right area of the webpage and select English language
• Click on the Registration and Authentication button and perform the registration process by filling-in the dedicated module
• Once the registration process is successfully completed enter the WEB Services page again
• Click on the New Request button
• Click on the UAS Services (Drones) button
• Select the applicable exam procedure

NOTE 1:

If your UAS weighs less than 250 grams:

• no certificate will be required for operations in the OPEN category as per EU reg. 2019/947
• registration on d-flight website will be required (in case you are at the same time pilot and operator)
• a liability insurance is required

NOTE 2: Please note that for A2 category examination, due to the need to perform the exam through an online-proctored examination as per AMC2 UAS.OPEN.030(2)(c) you will need to refer to any of the approved Recognized Entity as per the following links:

• Recognized Entities 1
• Recognized Entities 2

SPECIFIC Category

• Third countries citizens

If you hold a national certificate issued by your National Aviation Authority please be aware that the regulation in force does not allow any type of conversion or recognition by the national civil aviation Authorities. Subsequently this certificate won’t be valid within EU/EASA countries, as such you will need to achieve the certificates required for the OPEN category (A1-A3 and A2) as per the instructions included in the OPEN Category section and will need to demonstrate compliance with the additional requirements listed for EU pilots for competencies and training with regards to operations conducted in the specific category (see SPECIFIC category section for EASA/EU pilots).

Note: For additional information please refer EASA website “Traveling with Drones” and the following EASA Linkedin webpage

EU/EASA Operators

• EU member states/EASA countries operators

Article 13 “Cross-border operations or operations outside the state of registration of EU reg. 2019/947” sets-out the rules for EU/EASA member states operators to conduct operations in the SPECIFIC category intended to take place partially or entirely in the airspace of a Member State other than the Member State of registration.

Operators who were granted an operational approval should compile the Application for a cross-border UAS operation  in the ‘specific’ category and submit it to the following e-mail address: tecnologie.aerospazio@enac.gov.it

In order to comply with art. 23 of Italian UAS-IT regulation “the pilot shall plan the flight by means of d-flight website in case of BVLOS operations in accordance with the procedures established by ENAC”.

ENAC established as a procedure the use of d-flight platform for the purposes mentioned above.

UAS Operator registration number assigned by d-flight platform, in this case, has to be considered only in the frame of the release of the confirmation and not valid as Country registration in accordance with art. 14 of EU Reg. 2019/947.

Note: At the the time of cross border application a fee will need to be payed (309€ for cross border operation + 110€ for airspace reserve, if required)

The payment of the fees can be done via a wire transfer on the following bank account:

Account holder: ENAC

IBAN: IT 29 Q 01005 03309 000000218300

SWIFT  BIC: BNLIITRR

A proof of the successful execution of the bank transfer shall be attached to the application for cross border operation.

• EU Member states/EASA countries operators following standard scenarios

Operators in Italy may operate in Specific Category according to Standard Scenario IT-STS-01 and IT-STS-02 quoted in LG 2020/001-NAV (see links) in compliance with European and Italian Regulation.

Operators registered in EASA Countries outside Italy can release relevant declarations on d-flight platform.

In this case the UAS Operator registration number assigned by d-flight platform has to be considered only in the frame of the release of the declaration and not valid as Country registration in accordance with art. 14 of EU Reg. 2019/947.

• LUC holders

Il you are a LUC holder please send and email to following address for further details:

tecnologie.aerospazio@enac.gov.it
Note: For additional information please refer EASA website “Traveling with Drones” and the following EASA Linkedin webpage

– Non EASA/EU Operators

If you are an Operator with the principal place of business in a non EU/EASA member state who was granted an operational approval by your National Aviation Authority, please be aware that the regulation in force does not allow any type of conversion or recognition by the national civil aviation Authorities.

Please refer to the below listed scenarios:

1. If you are already registered in a EU/EASA member state as an operator, you will have to submit an application for operational approval to the competent National Aviation Authority of the state of registration. Once the state of registration NAA will issue the operational approval you will need to apply for the Cross-border operations or operations outside the state of registration in accordance with Article 13 of EU reg. 2019/947 (see – EU member states/EASA countries operators).
2. If you are not registered in a EU/EASA member state you will need to register on d-flight website as an operator and will then be able to apply for a new operational approval in the SPECIFIC category filling-in the application form and submitting it to the following e-mail address: tecnologie.aerospazio@enac.gov.it

Note: For additional information please refer EASA website “Traveling with Drones” and the following EASA Linkedin webpage

uspace

U-Space is the set of services designed to ensure that drones can operate in airspace safely and efficiently

Advanced Air Mobility (AAM) Regulations & Policies

Italy AAM

Italy has an AAM roadmap – 2021-2030

Italy’s first regulation for eVTOL flight operations and vertiport construction and operation

2024 – ENAC releases regulations for VTOL flight operations, vertiports

Advanced Air Mobility (AAM) News

2023 – Lilium signs agreement with Air-Dynamic to serve Switzerland, Italy

2023 – Lilium, UrbanV to develop AAM infrastructure in Italy, France

2024 – ITA Airways, Airbus, UrbanV and Enel partner for advanced air mobility ecosystem in Italy

2024 – Partnership for AAM Ecosystem in Italy

2024 – Unifly’s UTM Platform Advances Urban Air Mobility in Europe

2024 – Bird Strike Tech Undergoing Tests at UrbanV Vertiport

2024 – Lilium, Skyports to launch eVTOL network in northern Italy

2024 – Disused Aerodromes to be Redeveloped into Vertiports in Northern Italy

2024 – BAI Energy, Urban-Air Port to rehab trio of Italian vertiports

2024 – Skyports joint venture to develop AAM ecosystem in Italy

Short Essay Questions